GIFT   OF 


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A 


Japan 


Suggested  Outlines  for  a  Discussion  of  Japan, 

Her  Historu,   Culture,   Problems,   and 

Relations  with  the  United  States 


KENNETH   SCOTT  LATOURETTE 
D.  Willis  James  Professor  of  Missions  in  Yale  University 


FOREWORD 

"DELIEVING  that  an  outline  of  subjects  about  Japan  with 
references  to  reliable  sources  of  information  would  be  of 
value  to  members  of  the  Japan  Society,  to  clubs,  debating 
organizations,  teachers,  students,  and  writers  and  speakers  on 
Japan  the  Townsend  Harris  Endowment  Fund  Committee  of 
the  Japan  Society  asked  Professor  Kenneth  Scott  Latourette, 
of  Yale  University,  a  student  of  the  Far  East,  to  prepare  such  a 
work.  The  reader  should  understand  therefore  that  this  pamph- 
let does  not  necessarily  express  the  views  of  the  Committee, 
whose  opinions  on  the  subjects  covered  .  in  the  compilation 
were  not  sought.  It  is  entirely  the  production  of  Professor 
Latourette;  the  Townsend  Harris  Committee  and  the  Japan 
Society  act  merely  as  the  vehicle  for  its  distribution. 

COMMITTEE  : 

DARWIN  P.  KINGSLEY,  Chairman 

SEYMOUR  CROMWELL  R.  ICHINOMIYA 

JOHN  H.  FINLEY  OTTO  H.  KAHN 

ELBERT  H.  GARY  MASANAO  KOBAYASHI 

A.  BARTON  HEPBURN  JULIAN  STREET 

LINDSAY  RUSSELL  GERARD  SWOPE 

GUY  E.  TRIPP  FRANK  A.  VANDERLIP 

JAPAN  SOCIETY,  INC. 

25  West  43d  Street 

New  York 


attain  that  goal,  however,  it  is  highly  advisable  that  as  many 
other  organizations  as  possible  aid  in  the  sound  instruction  of 
our  people  about  Japan  and  things  Japanese.  Informal  groups 
in  colleges  and  universities,  business  men's  organizations,  and 
women's  clubs  can  and  should  each  have  its  part.  It  is  primarily 
to  meet  the  needs  of  such  groups  that  this  set  of  outlines  has 
been  prepared.  The  first  and  longest  syllabus  is  for  the  use  of 
those  who  may  wish  to  devote  a  series  of  meetings  to  Japan. 
There  is  no  reason,  however,  why  individual  sections  from  it 
should  not  be  chosen  by  those  who  may  wish  to  devote  a  shorter 
time  to  the  study.  The  other  and  briefer  outlines  are  designed 
for  groups  that  may  wish  to  take  up  only  one  feature  of  the  life 
and  problems  of  our  trans-Pacific  neighbor.  At  the  end  of  each 
section  there  are  given  bibliographical  references  to  four  or 
five  of  the  books  that  ought  most  frequently  to  be  found  in 
public  or  private  libraries,  and  at  the  close  of  the  pamphlet 
there  is  to  be  found  a  selected  list  of  the  most  important  works 
in  English  on  Japan. 

KENNETH  SCOTT  LATOURETTE. 
August,  1921 


JAPAN 

An  Outline  for  from  Six  to  Ten  Studies 

A 
THE   GEOGRAPHIC   BACKGROUND   OF  JAPAN 

I.     The  geographic  components  of  Japan. 

1.  The  islands,  from  North  to  South:    The  Kuriles,  Sak- 
halin (Southern  half  only,  although  the  Northern  half  is  also 
occupied    at    present),    Hokkaido    (Yezo),    the    Main    Island, 
Shikoku,    Kyushu,     the     Riukius,    Taiwan     (Formosa).      The 
Bonins,   a   small   group   important   only   for   strategic   reasons, 
lie   outside   this   chain.      By   the   Treaty   of   Versailles,   Japan 
acquired  under  a  mandate  the  former  German  islands  north  of 
the   Equator,   i.e.,   the   Marianne  or   Ladrone,   the   Pelew,   the 
Caroline  (including  Yap),  and  the  Marshall  Islands. 

2.  On    the    mainland    of   Asia:     Chosen    (Korea),    leased 
territories  in  Manchuria,  and  1  eased 


II.  Area.    Somewhat  larger  than  the  state  of  California. 

III.  Character  of  the  islands.     Mountainous.     The  soil  is  fre- 
quently unfertile,  and  only  about  a  quarter  of  it  is  capable 

of  being  reduced  to  cultivation. 

IV.  Influence  of  the  islands  upon  the  history  of  their  people. 

1.  The  insular  position  encourages  national  individuality. 

2.  In  the  old  days  this  insular  position  also  made  possible 
a  kind  of  isolation  from  the  continent.     During  historic  times 
there  has  been  no  successful  invasion  from  the  mainland. 

3.  The  islands,  because  of  their  nearness  to  the  continent, 
were  subject  to  cultural  influences  from  China  and  the  population 
and  civilization  of  the  country  are  Asiatic. 

4.  The  position  of  the  islands  gives  Japan  the  control  of 
all  the  sea  approaches  to  north-eastern  Asia,  and  so  assures 
her  an  advantage  in  the  commercial  and  naval  future  of  China, 
Eastern  Siberia,  and  the  North  Pacific. 

5 


5.  The  insular  character  of  the  country  and  the  nearness 
to  the  continent  have  been  factors  in  leading  the  nation  to  seek 
to  develop  its  shipping  and  commerce. 

6.  The  fact  that  the  arable  land  of  the  islands  is  greatly 
limited  has  caused  the  Japanese  to  turn  to  industry,  commerce, 
emigration,  and  imperialism  as  outlets  for  surplus  population 
and  energy.     The  islands  have  very  little  iron  and  insufficient 
coal  of  first  quality,  and  they  are,  accordingly,  eager  to  insure 
to   themselves   free  access   to   the  abundant   supplies   of   both 
which  are  to  be  bound  on  the  neighboring  continent. 

Bibliography.  K.  S.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  Japan, 
Macmillan,  1917,  chapter  I.  W.  E.  Griffis,  The 
*  Mikado's  Empire,  New  York,  1913,  12th  edition; 
E.  B.  Mitford,  Japan's  Inheritance.  London,  T.  Fisher 
Unwin,  1913;  E.  W.  Clement,  A  Handbook  of  Modern 
Japan,  Chicago,  A.  C.  McClurg,  1905,  Chapter  I. 


B 

THE   HISTORY   OF  JAPAN   TO   THE   COMING   OF 

PERRY 

I.  The  mythological  stories  of  the  origin  of  the  nation.    According 

to  these  the  islands  and  their  people  are  the  offspring 
of  the  gods,  and  the  imperial  house  is  directly  descended 
from  the  Sun  Goddess,  the  first  emperor  being  Jimmu 
Tenno,  and  the  traditional  date  of  his  accession, 
660  B.C. 

II.  The  real  facts  of  the  case  are,  probably,  that  the  Japanese 

are  a  mixed  race,  made  up  of  migrations  from  the 
continent  and  the  islands  to  the  south,  and  that  the 
original  center  of  the  Japanese  state  was  Yamato, 
on  a  peninsula  of  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  Main 
Island.  The  people  were  for  many  centuries  crude, 
without  a  highly  organized  government  or  a  system  of 
writing. 

6 


III.  Beginning  with  the  sixth  century  A.D.,  there  came  intimate 

contact  with  the  civilization   of  China  through    Korea, 
and  this  contact  brought  about  great  changes  in  Japan. 

1.  Buddhism  came  in,  and  with  it  as  the  vehicle  there 
entered  writing,  art,  architecture,  and  philosophy. 

2.  The  political  machinery  of  the  state  was  remodeled  to 
make  it  conform  to  that  of  China. 

3.  Commerce  and   industry  felt  the  stimulus  of  contact 
with  the  continent. 

4.  The    Japanese   were    not    blind    imitators    of    Chinese 
culture,  but  modified  it  in  places  to  meet  their  needs. 

IV.  The  rise  of  feudalism  and  the  shogunate,  with  their  dual 

government. 

1.  The  political  machinery  introduced  from  China  proved 
ill  adapted  to  Japan,  and  in  time  broke  down.     After  some 
centuries  of  struggle  and  evolution  the  real  power  of  the  govern- 
ment passed  into  the  hands  of  a  military  class  which  came  to 
be  organized  into  a  system  that  in  many  respects  resembled 
the  feudalism  of  medieval  Europe. 

2.  The  head  of  this  military  class  was  the  shogun,  and 
while  the  emperor  and  his  court  still  existed  and  were  nominally 
the  source  of  all  authority,  the  actual  administration  of  the 
country  was  in  the  hands  of  the  shogun  and  his  officials.    The 
shogunate  began  in  1192  A.D. 

V.  Japan  under  the  shogunate. 

1.  The  shogunate  was  successively  in  the  hands  of  several 
military  families. 

2.  In  the  civil  war  which  followed  the  fall  of  the  Ashikaga 
shoguns  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  A.D.  there  arose 
a  commoner,  Hideyoshi,  who  for  a  time  ruled  the  country  and 
carried  out  a  bloody  invasion  of  Korea. 

3.  The  final  dynasty  of  the  shogunate,  that  of  the  Toku- 
gawa  family,  was  begun  by  lyeyasu  in  1603,  and  ended  with  the 
resignation  of  the  shogun  and  the  abolishment  of  the  shogunate 
in  1867. 


4.  Intercourse  with  Europeans  began  at  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  Portuguese  were  the  first  to  come, 
and  other  Europeans  followed.  Both  traders  and  Catholic 
missionaries  came  and  the  latter  quickly  won  a  large  following, 
especially  in  southern  Japan.  The  success  of  the  missionaries 
and  the  danger  of  political  division  and  unrest  which  their 
presence  was  thought  to  involve,  led  Hideyoshi  and  lyeyasu  to 
proscribe  Christianity.  Under  lyeyasu  and  his  successors 
there  was  carried  on  a  bloody  persecution  of  Christians  and  the 
Church  was  all  but  stamped  out.  To  keep  out  missionaries 
and  by  so  doing  to  preserve  the  political  unity  and  independence 
of  the  country,  the  islands  were  closed  against  practically  all 
trade  with  Europe.  Only  the  Dutch  were  permitted  to  come 
to  Japan,  and  commerce  with  them  was  carried  on  under  the 
very  greatest  restrictions. 

Bibliography.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  Japan,  Chapters 
II-V;  Griffis,  The  Mikado's  Empire,  F.  Brinkley,  A 
History  of  the  Japanese  People,  New  York  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica  Co.,  1915,  pp.  1-664;  Clement, 
Handbook  of  Modern  Japan,  Chapter  VII;  R.  P. 
Porter,  The  Full  Recognition  of  Japan,  Oxford  University 
Press,  1911,  Chapters  II,  III. 


THE   CIVILIZATION   OF  THE  OLD   JAPAN 

I.     The  organization  and  the  spirit  were  military  and  feudal. 

1.  The  feudal  lords,  or  daimyo,  and  their  armed  retainers, 
or  samurai,  were  the  dominant  political  class,  and  their  ideals 
gave  the  tone  to  those  of  the  entire  nation. 

2.  This  tradition  has  been  largely  carried  over  into  the 
new  Japan  and  constitutes  at  once  a  large  part  of  her  strength 
and  her  weakness. 

8 


II.  The    imperial    house,    while    politically    almost    impotent, 

remained  in  theory  the  source  of  all  authority  and  socially 
was  held  far  to  outrank  the  shogun.  This  sacrosanct 
position  of  the  emperor  and  the  tradition  that  he 
should  reign  but  that  his  ministers  should  be  the  real 
executives  and  should  assume  responsibility  for  all 
his  acts  has  been  carried  over  in  part  into  the  new 
Japan. 

III.  The  religions. 

1.  Shinto.    This  was  the  primitive  faith  of  the  Japanese, 
somewhat  modified  by  later  elements  from  the  continent.     Its 
chief   emphasis   in    time   came    to   be   upon    paying   honor   to 
ancestors,  national  heroes,  and  to  the  imperial  house. 

2.  Buddhism.    This  had  been  introduced  from  China  and 
Korea  and  had  been  the  vehicle  on  which  had  come  much  of 
the  culture  of  the  continent.     It  was  divided  into  a  number  of 
sects  and  its  monastic  houses  were  often  very  powerful.     The 
Tokugawa  shoguns  especially  favored  it. 

3.  Confucianism.     This  system  of  ethics  and  philosophy 
was  introduced  from  China.    In  the  strictest  sense  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  is  a  religion.     It  was  not  as  widespread  as  in  China 
and  its  chief  influence  was  upon  the  upper  class. 

IV.  Bushido,  the  ethical  system  of  the  military  class.     This  had 

in  it  Buddhist  and  Confucian  elements  and  placed 
great  emphasis  upon  loyalty  and  personal  honor.  Its 
influence  upon  the  new  Japan  is  still  important. 

V.  Art.     This  was  largely  fostered  and  influenced  by  Budd- 

hism. The  artistic  spirit  was  strong,  perhaps  in  part 
because  of  the  beauty  of  the  natural  environment  of 
the  nation.  The  chief  forms  of  art  were  painting, 
carving,  architecture,  sword  making,  and  ceramics. 
The  artistic  spirit  also  expressed  itself  in  dances, 
ceremonies,  and  in  an  elaborate  courtesy. 

9 


VI.  Literature. 

1.  Except  in  poetry  this  was  largely  Chinese  in  form  and 
style. 

2.  The  Chinese  character  was  used  for  writing,  but  this 
was  in  part  modified  by  the  invention  of  syllabic  signs. 

VII.  National  Characteristics. 

1.  Martial. 

2.  Exclusive. 

3.  Sensitive,  with  a  highly  developed  sense  of  courtesy 
and  honor. 

4.  Accustomed    to    adapting    foreign    institutions,    ideas, 
and  devices  to  the  use  of  Japan. 

VIII.  Economic  organization. 

1 .  The  merchant  class  was  looked  down  on  by  the  military 
class,  and  trade  was  considered  below  the  dignity  of  gentlemen. 

2.  Such  industry  and  commerce  as  existed  were  organized 
on  the  guild  basis. 

3.  The  country  was  self-supporting  and  there  was  practi- 
cally no  foreign  trade. 

Bibliography,  Latourette,  The  Development  of  Japan,  Chapter 
VI;  Griffis,  The  Mikado's  Empire  \  Brinkley,  A  History 
of  the  Japanese  People,  passim. 

D 
THE  TRANSFORMATION   OF  JAPAN,    1853-1894 

I .     The  coming  of  the  Occident. 

1.  The  opening  of  Japan  was  inevitable  because  of  the 
expansion   of   European   peoples,    industry,   and   commerce   in 
the  nineteenth  century. 

2.  Japan  was  opened   by   Commodore   Perry,  acting  for 
the  United  States.     The  motive  w'as  provision   for  American 
seamen  and  commerce  in  the  North  Pacific. 

10 


3.  The  treaty  negotiated   by  Perry,   in  1854,  the  Spring 
after  his  first  coming  to  Japan,   was  followed   by  others  with 
Western  powers. 

4.  The  first  effective  commercial  treaties  were  negotiated 
by  Townsend  Harris,  for  the  United  States,  in  1857  and  1858. 
By  these  treaties  certain  ports  were  opened  for  commerce  and 
the   residence  of  foreigners,  exterritoriality  was  adopted  and  a 
customs  tariff  was  fixed. 

5.  The  steady  growth  of  commerce  and  of  other  forms  of 
intercourse  with  the  United  States  and  Europe,  such  as  Christian 
missions,  the  establishment  of  foreign  consulates  and  legations, 
the    sending    of    Japanese    diplomatic    representatives    abroad, 
and  the  employing  of  foreign  teachers — all  of  these  were  chan- 
nels for  the  introduction  of  Western  ideas  and  institutions. 

1 1 .     Changes  in  Japan  which  followed  the  coming  of  the  Occident. 
1.     Political. 

a.  International    dissension     over    the    question    pi 
whether  the  country  should  be  opened  to  the  foreigner.     The 
shogun  favored  admitting  him,  but  a  group  of  southern  fiefs, 
chief  of  whom  were  Satsuma  and  Choshu,  opposed  this  policy 
and  gained  the  ear  of  the  emperor. 

b.  The  end  of  the  shogunate  and  the  restoration  of  the 
emperor    (1867).     The   shogun    found    his   position  intolerable, 
chiefly  because  of  the  dissension  over  foreign   policy  and  an 
increasing  demand  that  the  emperor  resume  the  full  direction 
of   the    state.     He    accordingly    resigned    and    imperial    decree 
declared  the  duarchy  at  an  end. 

c.  In  1868  the  emperor  who  is  today  known  by  the 
name  of  Meiji  came  to  the  throne.     As  he  reached  manhood  he 
backed  the  reformers. 

d.  The    southern    fiefs,    who    were    now    dominant, 
experienced    a    change    of    mind    and    favored    admitting    the 
foreigner. 

11 


e.  In  1868  the  capital  of  the  empire  was  removed  from 
Kyoto  to  Yedo  (renamed  Tokyo),  a  symbol  of  the  end  of  the 
duarchy  and  national  seclusion. 

f.  The  end  of  feudalism.     In  1869  the  daimyo  volun- 
tarily surrendered  their  fiefs  and  in  1871  the  feudal  system  was 
officially  abolished  by  imperial  decree. 

g.  The  centralization  of  government. 

(1)  The    substitution    of    compulsory,    universal 
military  service  for  the  feudal  army  in  which  service  was  a  class 

privilege. 

(2)  So  far  as  law  could  do  it  the  old  class  distinc- 
tions were  abolished  and  all  subjects  of  the  emperor  were  placed 
on  an  equal  footing. 

(3)  The  organization  of  a  bureaucracy  responsible 
to  the  authorities  at  Tokyo. 

(4)  National  courts  and  codes  of  laws  framed  in 
part  according  to  European  models. 

(5)  Creation  of  a  national  currency  and  banking 
system. 

(6)  An  official  revival  of  Shinto  to  increase  the 
respect   for   the  emperor  and   his   ancestors   and   so   to   foster 
patriotism. 

(7)  The  work  of  centralization  and  reorganization 
was  carried  on  by  a  group  of  young  men,  largely  ex-samurai 
and  members  of  the  southern  fiefs,  and  the  control  of  these  fiefs 
over  the  government,  especially  over  the  army  and  navy,  largely 
continued     under    the    new    forms.     Although     feudalism  was 
legally  abolished,  its  spirit  and  traditions  could  not  be  so  easily 
extinguished,  and  its  influence  has  been  strong  even  down  to  the 
present  time. 

h.  The  opposition  to  the  new  order  of  things  did  not 
quickly  die  down,  but  culminated  in  the  Satsuma  revolt  of 
1877.  This  was  easily  suppressed. 

i.     The  formation  and  adoption  of  a  constitution. 

(1)     The  agitation  for  this  dated  from  the  seven- 
ties and  even  the  sixties.     Tentative  steps  were  taken  toward 

12 


it  by  the  government  and  as  the  demand  continued  and  increased 
the  government  promised  (1881)  that  a  constitution  would  be 
granted. 

(2)  The  document  was  largely  the  work  of  Ito, 
who  was  sent  to  the  West  to  study  the  forms  of  government 
in  use  there. 

(3)  The  constitution  was  prepared  secretly  by  an 
imperial   commission  and   was  officially   promulgated   in    1889. 
It  was  the  gift  of  the  emperor  and  was  not  a  document  drawn 
by  a  popularly  elected  assembly. 

(4)  The   constitution    resembles   in    many   ways 
that  of  the   German   Empire.     All   power   is  centered   in   the 
emperor.     Certain  rights  are  conceded  to  all  Japanese  subjects 
limited,  however,  by  restrictions  placed   by  law.     There   is  an 
Imperial  Diet,  composed  of  the  House  of  Peers  and  the  House 
of  Representatives.     The  upper  house  is  made  up  of  hereditary, 
nominated  and  elected  members.  .  The  lower  house  is  made  up 
of  members  elected  on  the  basis  of  a  franchise  which  has  been 
steadily  expanded  but  is  still  limited.     No  laws  can  be  passed  or 
new  taxes  levied  without  the  consent  of  the  Diet,  but  the  emperor 
may  exercise  an  absolute  veto  over  the  Diet.     The  cabinet  is 
responsible  to  the  emperor  alone,  and  not  to  the  Diet.     The 
institution  of  the  Elder  Statesmen,  or  Genro,  while  not  provided 
for  by  the  constitution,  and  entirely  extra-legal,  is  very  influential. 
The  body  has  been  made  up  of  those  leaders  who  were  most 
active  in  the  organization  of  the  new  Japan.     The  constitution, 
while  seemingly  so  undemocratic,  was  probably  the  best  possible 
for  the  Japan  of  1890,  and  it  is  so  elastic  that  under  it  the  govern- 
ment can   become   more  and   more  democratic  as   the   nation 
becomes  ready  for  and  desirous  of  such  a  change. 

j.  The  rise  of  parties  and  the  struggle  of  the  lower 
house  to  obtain  control  of  the  cabinet.  Itagaki  and  Okuma 
were  the  chief  party  leaders. 

2.     Diplomatic. 

a.  The  establishment  of  foreign  legations  in  Japan 
and  the  sending  of  Japanese  consular  and  diplomatic  representa- 
tives to  the  West. 

13 


b.  There  was  a  growing  demand  that  exterritoriality 
be  abolished  and  the  full  control  of  the  country  over  its  customs 
duties  be  restored.     This  agitation  was  due  to  a  rapidly  growing 
patriotism  and  sense  of  national  importance.     Exterritoriality 
was  finally  abolished   in    1898,   and   complete  tariff  autonomy 
came  into  effect  in  1911. 

c.  In    1875    Russia    recognized    Japan's    sovereignty 
over  the  Kuriles  in  return  for  Japan's  recognition  of  her  owner- 
ship of  Sakhalin. 

d.  In   the   seventies   Japan   extended   her   provincial 
administration  to  the  Riu  Kiu  Islands  and  in  other  ways  main- 
tained her  claim  to  them  against  a  counter  claim  of  China. 

e.  In  1876  Japan  opened  Korea  to  the  outside  world 
and  became  the  champion  of  progress  in  that  hermit  kingdom. 
Her  policy  there  came  into  conflict  with  that  of  China,  who 
claimed  suzerainty  over  the  peninsula,  but  in  1885  Tokyo  and 
Pekin  came  to  a  working,  and,  as  it  later  proved,  temporary 
agreement  concerning  the  country. 

3.  Ecomomic. 

a.  The  increase  of  foreign  trade. 

b.  The  beginnings  of  railways. 

c.  The  beginnings  of  a  mercantile  marine. 

d.  The  introduction  of  modern  methods  of  industry  and 
agriculture. 

e.  The  beginnings  of  a  banking  system. 

f.  In  all  of  these  activities  the  state  usually  took  the 
lead. 

4.  Educational. 

a.  The  introduction  of  a  complete  system  of  public 
instruction  on  Occidental  lines,  with  universal  compulsory 
primary  education  as  a  foundation  and  culminating  in  the 
universities.  Foreign  teachers  were  employed  in  large  numbers. 

14 


b.  The   appearance   of   a   modern   literature,    largely 
in  the  form  of  translations  of  Western  books. 

c.  The  rise  of  newspapers  and  periodicals. 

5.     Religious. 

a.  The  disestablishment  of  Buddhism  and  an  emphasis 
on  Shinto. 

b.  The  removal  of  the  edicts  against  Christianity  and 
the  rise  of  Christian  churches — Catholic,  Greek  Orthodox  (Rus- 
sian), and  Protestant. 

Bibliography.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  Japan,  Chap- 
ters VII-IX;  Griffis,  The  Mikado's  Empire;  Brinkley,  A  Short 
History  of  the  Japanese  People,  pp.  664-699,  707-710;  Clement, 
Handbook  of  Modern  Japan,  Chapters  VIII,  IX,  X;  Porter, 
The  Full  Recognition  of  Japan,  Chapters  IV  and  V. 


JAPAN  BECOMES  A  WORLD  POWER  AND  AN  INDUS- 
TRIALIZED  AND    COMMERCIAL   NATION 

I.     The  War  With  China,  1894-1895. 

1.  Cause:    Dispute   between   China  and  Japan  over  the 
control  of  Korea,  and  the  fear  of  Japan  that  Russia  might  some- 
time annex  the  country. 

2.  The   war   Japan   won   easily   on   land   and   sea.     The 
Chinese  fleet  was  destroyed,  and  Wei-hai-wei,  Port  Arthur  and 
Talien  were  taken. 

3.  The  treaty  (of  Shimonoseki)  that   ended   the  war.     By 
this  treaty  China  recognized  the  independence  of  Korea;  the 
Liaotung   Peninsula    (in   Southern   Manchuria),    Formosa,   and 
the  Pescadore  Islands  were  ceded  to  Japan,  and  an  indemnity 
was  given  her. 

15 


4.  Russia,  France,  and  Germany  intervened  and  compelled 
Japan  to  recede  to  China  the  Liaotung  Peninsula  in  return  for 
a  larger  indemnity. 

5.  As  a  result  of  this  interference  Japan  began  to  expand 
her    army    and    navy    and    a   war    with    Russia    seemed    not 
improbable. 

6.  The  effect  of  the  war  was  somewhat  to  increase  the 
world's  respect  for  Japan.     She  had  not,  however,  yet  attained 
recognition  as  a  world  power. 

II.  European  aggression  in  China. 

1.  European  powers,  impelled  by  the  imperialism  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  began  to  struggle  for  railway  concessions, 
leases,  and  spheres  of  influence  in  China.  France  obtained 
railway  concessions  and  the  lease  of  a  port  in  South  China, 
Great  Britain  leased  Wei-hai-wei  and  marked  out  the  Yangtze 
Valley  as  her  sphere  of  influence,  Germany  obtained  (1899)  a 
ninety-nine  year  lease  on  the  harbor  of  Kiao  Chau  and  con- 
cessions for  railways  in  Shantung,  and  Russia  got  a  lease  on 
Port  Arthur  and  Dalny  (on  the  Liaotung  Peninsula)  and  con- 
nected them  by  rail  with  her  trans-Siberian  trunk  line.  Russia 
had  already  obtained  the  consent  of  China  to  build  the  trans- 
Siberian  railway  across  Northern  Manchuria  instead  of  having 
it  follow  the  windings  of  the  Amur  in  all-Russian  territory. 
Russia,  who  had  years  ago  annexed  Siberia  and  was  engaged 
in  pushing  the  boundaries  of  her  Asiatic  possessions  as  far 
eastward  and  southward  as  possible,  seemed  bent  on  acquiring 
Manchuria  and  Korea,  and  in  so  doing  had  become  a  menace 
to  Japan. 

2.  The  United  States  tried  to  oppose  by  means  of  the 
Open  Door  Policy  this  land-grabbing  by  Europe,  but  in  the 
main  obtained  only  perfunctory  acquiescence  in  it. 

III.  Japan's  part  in  the  Boxer  Outbreak  (1900). 

1.  Some  of  the  Chinese  attempted  to  oust  the  Westerner 
and  a  joint  expedition  of  the  Powers  was  organized  to  relieve 

16 


the  foreigners  who  were  beseiged  in  Peking.     In  this  expedition 
Japan  had  a  part,  and  her  troops  bore  themselves  well. 

2.  Russia  took  advantage  of  the  Boxer  troubles  to  extend 
her  power  in  Manchuria,  and  maintained  her  forces  there  in 
spite  of  the  protests  of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and 
Japan. 

IV.  The  Anglo- Japanese  Alliance.    This  agreement  was  formed 

in  1902,  and  was  confined  in  its  scope  to  the  Far 
East.  It  was  directed  primarily  against  Russia,  for 
both  parties  feared  her  aggressions  in  Asia.  It  was 
renewed  in  1905,  because  of  fear  of  Germany,  and 
again  in  1911,  for  ten  years. 

V.  The  Russo-Japanese  War,  1904-1905. 

1.  The    causes:     Russian    intrigues    in    Manchuria    and 
Korea. 

2.  The  war.     Japan  won  on  both  land  and  sea.     On  land 
she  drove  the  Russian  army  back  and  captured  Port  Arthur 
and  Mukden.     On  sea  she  penned  up  and  captured  the  eastern 
fleet  of  the  Czar  and  destroyed  the  Baltic  Fleet  in  the  Straits 
of  Tsushima.     Had  it  not  been  for  revolution  in  Russia,  how- 
ever, the  Czar  might  have  continued  the  war,  and  had  he  done 
so  it  might  have  gone  hard  with  Japan,  for  her  resources  were 
badly  strained. 

3.  The    Peace    of    Portsmouth.      Through    the    friendly 
offices  of  President  Roosevelt  the  two  belligerents  were  brought 
together  at  Portsmouth,  and  by  the  treaty  that  followed,  Japan's 
paramount    interests    in    Korea    were    recognized,    Manchuria 
was  to  be  evacuated,  the  Russian  leases  on  Port  Arthur  and 
Dalny   and    the    Russian   railways   in   South    Manchuria   were 
transferred  to  Japan,  the  south  half  of  Sakhalin  was  ceded  to 
Japan,  and  the  reimbursement  of  each  power  for  the  expense 
of  caring  for  prisoners  of  war,  the  maintenance  of  railway  guards 
in  Manchuria,  and  the  recognition  of  Chinese  sovereignty  in 
Manchuria  were  provided  for. 

17 


4.  The  effects  of  the  war  were  greatly  to  increase  the 
prestige  of  Japan  in  Europe  and  Asia,  to  commit  her  to  a 
continental  policy,  to  insure  her  control  of  Korea  and  her  deep 
interest  in  China,  to  strengthen  the  hands  of  her  militaristic 
elements,  and  to  lead  to  a  renewal  of  the  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance 
(1905  and  1911). 

VI.  Japan's  growing  power  on  the  Continent,  1905-1914. 

1.  The    annexation    of    Korea,    1910.      Under    Japanese 
rule,  which  in  the  beginning  was  openly  militaristic,  the  pros- 
perity of  the  peninsula  has  greatly  increased,  but  the  inhabitants 
have  been  restive. 

2.  By  commerce,  by  subsidizing  steamships,  and  by  extend- 
ing her  post  offices,  Japan  increased   her  influence  in   China. 
Many    thousands    of    Chinese    studied    in    Tokyo,    and    Japan 
thus  became  the  medium  by  which  much  of  Occidental  culture 
came  to  China. 

3.  Japan  was  much  interested  in  the  revolution  of  1911 
(by  which  China  became  a  republic),  and  in  the  disorders  that 
accompanied  and   followed  that  event  she  found  opportunity 
to  strengthen  her  influence  in  China. 

VII.  Japan  and  the  Great  War,  1914-1918. 

1.  In  August,   1914,  Japan  entered  the  war  on  the  side 
of  the  Entente.     She  was  led  to  do  this  partly  by  the  Anglo- 
Japanese  Alliance,  and  partly  by  her  own  interests  in  China. 

2.  Aided  by  a  small  British  force  she  took  from  Germany 
the  latter's  holdings  in  Shantung,  giving  the  world  to  under- 
stand that  she  would  return  them  to  China.     She  also  helped 
to  drive  the  German  raiders  off  the  North  Pacific  and  captured 
some  of  the  German  Islands  in  the  Pacific. 

3.  In  1915  she  made  five  groups  of  twenty-one  demands 
on  China.     By  these  she  sought  to  extend  her  power  in  Man- 
churia, to  win  China's  consent  to  any  settlement  which  Tokyo 
might  make  with  Germany  about  the  latter's  former  possessions 
in  Shantung,  to  obtain  control  of  the  greatest  iron  works  in 

18 


China,  to  have  China  promise  not  to  cede  or  lease  to  any  third 
power  any  portion  of  her  coast,  and  to  secure  a  strong  hold 
on  China's  government  and  army,  railway  concessions  in  the 
Yangtze  Valley  and  a  certain  priority  of  interest  in  the  province 
of  Fuhkien.  Because  China  was  helpless  she  granted  most 
of  the  demands  included  under  the  first  four  groups,  but  the 
Chinese  people  considered  themselves  humiliated.  A  large 
section  of  the  Japanese  public  came  to  feel  that  the  demands 
were  too  severe  and  hence  a  mistake.  If  there  is  any  defense 
for  them  and  for  Japan's  other  aggressions  in  China,  it  is  to 
be  found  in  the  necessity  of  Japan's  maintaining  free  access 
to  China's  markets  and  resources,  in  China's  weakness,  in  the 
fact  that  European  powers  by  their  aggressions  had  threatened 
to  close  the  door  against  Japan,  and  in  the  opportunity  that 
the  Great  War  gave  Japan  to  obtain  a  secure  hold  on  China 
against  the  days  of  renewed  European  expansion. 

4.  In  1916,  Japan  entered  into  an  agreement  with  Russia 
by  which  the  two  powers  were  to  protect  each  other's  interests 
in  the  Far  East. 

5.  In    1917,    Japan    entered    into    secret    understandings 
with  Russia,  Great  Britain,  France,  and    Italy  by  which  these 
powers    agreed    to    support   at    the    peace    conference   Japan's 
claims  to  the  German  islands  north  of  the  equator,  and   the 
former  German  holdings  in  Shantung. 

6.  In  1917,  after  the  United  States  and  China  had  entered 
the  war,  the  Lansing- Ishii  Agreement  was  arrived  at  between 
Japan  and  the  United  States.     By  this  both  powers  agreed  to 
observe    the    territorial    integrity   and    independence   of   China 
and  the  open  door  into  that  country,  and  the  United  States 
recognized  that  because  of  "territorial  propinquity"  Japan  had 
4 'special  interests"  in  China. 

7.  Japan  entered  into  a  military  agreement  with    China 
for  common  defense  against  the  common  menace  of  Russian 
unrest  on  the  north. 

8.  In   1918,   Japan  loaned   to   China  large  sums  on    the 
security  of  revenues  and  other  valuable  assets  in  various  parts 
of  the  country. 

19 


9.  The  civil  war  which  broke  out  in  China  in  1917,  and 
which   has   continued    to   the   present   time,  further  weakened 
China    and    facilitated    somewhat    the    extension    of    Japanese 
influence  in  the  country. 

10.  Early  in   1918,  Japan  and   the  United  States,   aided 
by  small  forces  of  British,   French,   and   Italians  undertook  a 
joint   expedition   into   Eastern   Siberia   to   help   put   down   the 
Bolsheviki,   and   to   allow   the   Czecko-Slovaks   to   make   their 
way  out.     The  withdrawal  of  the  American  forces  in  1920  left 
Japan  alone  in  Siberia  and  there  her  troops  still  remain. 

11.  In  1919,  some  Koreans,  placing  hope  in  the  avowed 
championship  by  the  Allies  of  the  self-determination  of  peoples, 
started  an  independence  movement.    This  was  easily  put  down 
by  the  Japanese,  but  the  severity  with  which  this  was  done 
aroused  sharp  criticism  in  the  United  States  and  among  many 
of  the  Japanese,  and  a  milder  administration  was  promised. 

12.  In  1919,  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  with  Germany, 
Japan  was  given  the  mandate  to  the  former  German  islands 
in  the  Pacific,  north  of  the  equator,  and  was  given  outright  the 
former   German   holdings  in   Shantung.     The  latter  provision 
aroused  opposition  in  the  United  States  and  greatly  enraged 
the  Chinese.    Led  by  the  students,  the  Chinese  people  instituted 
a  boycott  against  the  Japanese  and  their  products,  and  forced 
their  government  to  decline  to  sign  the  treaty.     Japan  later 
made  overtures  to  China  to  open  negotiations  to  adjust  the 
Shanturtg  situation,   but  to  date   the  Chinese  have  refused  to 
accept  her  terms. 

13.  At  Paris,  in  1919,  at  the  instance  of  the  United  States, 
a  financial  consortium  was  projected  for  the  purpose  of  making 
loans  for  the  development  of  China  through  an  international 
group,  and  thus  to  prevent  the  creation  of  further  spheres  of 
influence  and  concessions  to  individual  nations.     Japan  at  first 
declined  to  join  this  consortium  unless  Manchuria  were  exempted 
from  its  scope.     She  later,  however,  reached  an  understanding 
with  the  consortium  which  enabled  her  to  enter. 

14.  During    the    war   Japanese    industry   and    commerce 
grew  with  great  rapidity  and  the  country  was  very  prosperous. 

20 


15.  The  net  results  of  the  war  were  greatly  to  increase 
the  wealth  of  Japan,  to  give  her  a  recognized  place  among  the 
great  powers,  to  extend  largely  her  control  over  China,  and 
because  of  the  great  losses  of  European  nations  to  leave  her 
relatively  much  stronger  than  she  was  in  1914. 

VIII.     Japan  and  the  United  States. 

1.  Until  1905,  the  relations  between  the  two  nations  had 
been  cordial.     America's  part  in  opening  Japan,   her  friendly 
attitude,  her  return  of  part  of  the  Shimonoseki  indemnity  fund, 
the  work  of  American  teachers,  advisers  and  missionaries,  and 
the  lack  of  any  serious  cause  of  friction  between  the  two  countries 
had  all  made  for  friendship. 

2.  After   1905,   the  relations  between  the  two  countries 
had   periods   of   strain.      The   chief  causes  of  this   strain   were 
Japan's  economic  situation,  the  question  of  Japanese  immigration 
to  the  United  State's,  the  conflict  of  the  interests  and  policies 
of  the  two  powers  on  the  continent  of  Asia,  especially  in  China, 
rivalry  on  the  Pacific,  including  competition  in  naval  armaments, 
and  the  activities  of  a  jingo  press  in  each  country. 

3.  The  economic  situation  of  Japan; 

a.  A  growing  population. 

b.  A  limited  amount  of  arable  land,  no  iron,  only  a 
fair  amount  of  coal,  and  a  dearth  of  many  of  the  raw  materials 
for  industry. 

c.  Under    the    circumstances,    Japan    has    only    two 
alternatives,  to  foster  emigration  or  to  become  an  industrial  and 
commercial  nation,  exchanging  her  manufactured  products  for 
food  and  raw  materials. 

d.  Many  of  the  best  of  the  vacant  lands  of  the  world, 
such  as  Australia,  the  United  States,  and  Canada,  are  closed 
against  her  and  this  exclusion  is  provocative  of  irritation.     Her 
only  opportunity  is  in  becoming  an  industrialized  nation,  and 
if  she  is  to  do  this  she  finds  her  best  natural  market  and  source 
of  raw  materials  on  the  neighboring  continent.    This  gives  her 

21 


a  great  interest  in  China  and  Eastern  Siberia.  Her  Chinese 
policy  is  her  main  interest  in  foreign  relations.  If  she  is  to  have 
a  strong  voice  in  Asiatic  affairs  and  is  to  develop  a  large  mer- 
chant marine  for  her  commerce,  she  feels  the  need  of  a  powerful 
fleet  to  protect  her  shipping  and  her  communications  with  Asia. 

e.  In  all  of  these  needs,  i.e.,  room  for  emigrants, 
vigorous  Chinese  and  Asiatic  policies,  and  a  large  fleet,  her 
interests  have  clashed  with  those  of  the  United  States. 

4.     The  Japanese  in  the  United  States. 

a.  The   presence   of   Japanese   on    the    Pacific  Coast 
of  the  United  States  and  in  Hawaii.     They  originally  came  in 
as  unskilled  laborers  and  at  first  were  welcomed.     They  were 
hard-working,  thrifty,  and  law-abiding. 

b.  Prejudice  against  the  Japanese  first  arose  in  about 
1900,  but  did  not  become  serious  until   1905  and   1906.     The 
center  of  the  prejudice  was  in  California,  but  there  was  also 
opposition  to  the  Japanese  in  the  State  of  Washington  and  in 
Hawaii. 

c.  In    1907    there    was    arranged    the    "Gentlemen's 
Agreement"  by  which  the  Japanese  government  undertook  to 
prevent  the  coming  of  unskilled  laborers  to  the  United  States. 
The  Japanese  have  on   the  whole  scrupulously  observed   this 
agreement;  but  they  have  seriously  irritated  the  people  of  the 
Pacific  States  by  permitting  " Picture-Brides"  to  be  sent  over. 
This  practice   has  now  been   discontinued.     Such  Japanese  as 
have  entered  the  United  States  have  for  the  most  part  not  been 
of  the  groups  falling  under  the  scope  of  the  prohibition. 

d.  In  1913  Californians  became  alarmed  at  the  increase 
in  the  amount  of  land  owned  or  leased  by  Japanese,  and  although 
the  proportion  of  this  land  to  the  total  cultivated  area  of  the 
state  was  small,  they  feared  a  Japanese  invasion  and  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  President  Wilson,  passed  legislation  which 
was  designed  to  prevent  the  Japanese  from  holding  land  except 
on  a  short  term  lease.     In  1920  new  and  more  stringent  legis- 
lation was  passed  by  California. 

22 


e.  Unless  born   in   the   United  States,   Japanese  are 
not    permitted    to    vote.      They    cannot    become    naturalized 
citizens.     The  status  of  those  who  are  born  in  the  United  States 
is  complicated  by  the  fact  that  under  certain  conditions  Japan 
may  still  claim  them  as  her  subjects,  and  that  there  is  some 
agitation  for  depriving  them  of  American  citizenship. 

f.  The   net   result  of   the  anti-Japanese  agitation  in 
the  United  States  has  been  to  embitter  Japanese  against  America 
and   to   increase   the   dislike   and   suspicion   of   Americans   for 
Japanese.     There  has,  however,  been  an  active  and  influential 
minority   in   each   country   working  for  good-will   and   mutual 
understanding. 

5.     The  conflict  of  Japan  and  America  in  Asia. 

a.  Underlying  causes.     Japan  feels  that  her  existence 
depends  upon  her  retaining  free  access  to  the  markets,  mines, 
and  raw  materials  of  Asia,  and  especially  China.     China  is  weak 
and   European  powers  have  threatened   to  partition   her  and 
close  the  door  against  Japan.     Japan,  accordingly,  desires  to 
have  a  controlling  voice  in  China's  affairs.     This  desire  is  ree'n- 
forced  by  the  presence  in  Japan  of  a  militaristic,  imperialistic 
group  that  is  very  influential  in  the  government.     The  United 
States  has  stood  for  the  open  door  in  China  and  for  the  inde- 
pendence and  territorial  integrity  of  that  country.    Her  capi- 
talists are  partly  awake  to  the  possibilities  for  commerce  and 
the  investment  of  capital  in  China  and  may  become  dangerous 
rivals  of  the  Japanese. 

b.  In   1905   Harriman  tried   to  buy  the  railroads  in 
Manchuria  that  Japan  had  acquired  from  Russia,  but  failed. 
He  later  tried  to  get  control  of  the  Russian  lines  there.     Secretary 
Knox  also  proposed  to  neutralize  the  railroads  of  Manchuria. 
These  various  attempts  aroused  the  opposition  and  suspicions 
of  Japan. 

c.  Various  attempts  of  Americans  to  invest  capital 
in  China  helped  to  make  the  Japanese  believe  that  the  United 
States  might  become  a  dangerous  rival  on  the  continent.     Some 
of   these   attempts   were  America's   part   in   the   international 

23 


syndicate  which  in  1913  loaned  money  to  China,  the  project 
of  an  American  company  to  build  docks  in  Fuhkien,  opposite 
Formosa,  the  proposal  of  American  capitalists  to  loan  money 
for  the  construction  of  a  railway  in  Shantung  in  competition 
with  railways  controlled  by  Japan,  and  the  part  of  the  State 
Department  of  the  United  States  in  initiating  and  of  American 
financiers  in  carrying  on  the  consortium  of  1919.  American 
official  policy  has  been  to  favor  the  independence  and  territorial 
integrity  of  China.  This  angers  Japanese  imperialists  and  at 
times  it  seems,  even  to  those  who  are  not  imperialistically  inclined, 
to  be  a  cloak  under  which  to  hide  sinister  designs  on  China. 

d.  During  the  war  the  United  States  was  the  only 
power  to  lodge  even  a  semi-protest  against  the  Twenty-One 
Demands.     She   was   largely    influential    in    leading    China    to 
break  with  Germany,  and  she  was  the  only  one  of  the  Allies  who, 
in  1917,  advised  China  that  it  was  better  for  her  to  compose 
her  internal  differences  than  to  go  to  war  with   the  Central 
Powers.     At  Paris  American  public  opinion  strongly  condemned, 
on  the  whole,  the  transfer  of  the  German  rights  in  Shantung  to 
Japan.     These  various  acts,  together  with  American  intervention 
in  Siberia,  and  the  sympathy  of  Americans  with  the  Korean 
attempt  at  independence,  seemed  to  many  Japanese  to  indicate 
an  attempt  to  displace  Japan  as  the  dominant  power  in  Eastern 
Asia,  or  at  least  to  be  an  effort  to  check  Japan  in  her  endeavor 
to  realize  what  she  deemed  to  be  her  legitimate  ambitions. 

e.  Many  Americans,  on  the  other  hand,  became  firmly 
convinced  that  Japan  was  attempting  to  annex  Eastern  Siberia, 
to  control  and  possibly  sometime  to  annex  China,  and  to  become 
the  kind  of  menace  to  the  world  that  Germany  was  in  1914. 

f.  The  Root-Takahira  Agreement  of  1908  and  Lansing- 
Ishii  Agreement  of  1917  were  attempts  to  adjust  the  relation- 
ships of  the  two  powers  in  China,  but  were  not  highly  successful. 

6.     Japanese-American  rivalry  on  the  Pacific. 

a.     Many  Americans  believed  Japan^to  have  ambitions 
to  annex  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines. 

24 


b.  The  controversy  over  the  island  of  Yap,  a  former 
German  possession  and  an  important  cable  station,  (1920  and 
1921)  did  not  improve  matters. 

c.  The  Japanese  have  an  increasing  part  of  the  carrying 
trade  of  the  North  Pacific. 

d.  The  rival  naval  building  programs  of  the  United 
States  and  Japan. 


7.  There  is  in  each  country  a  jingo  press  which  talks  much 
of  war  and  makes  the  most  out  of  every  rumor  with  scant  regard 
to  whether  it  is  true  or  false. 


8.  In  the  face  of  these  various  causes  making  for  misun- 
derstanding there  are  a  number  of  counterbalancing  forces. 

a.  The  unwillingness  of  both  powers  to  go  to  war. 
The  United  States  is  tired  of  war  and  the  Japanese  know  them- 
selves to  be  much  the  weaker  of  the  two  powers  in  natural 
resources.     In  each  nation  there  are  those  who  believe  that  a 
war  between  the  two  countries  would  be  disastrous  to  one  and 
possibly  both  belligerents  and  that  only  harm  could  come  from  it. 

b.  In  each  country  there  are  those  who  are  working  to 
remove  the  causes  of  misunderstanding  between  the  two  nations. 

c.  America   is   still   Japan's   best   customer,  and  war 
between  the  two  countries  would  work  a  hardship  on  large 
elements  in  the  Island  Empire. 

9.  War  between  the  two  countries  would  be  highly  unfor- 
tunate but  is  by  no  means  inevitable.     There  must,  however, 
be  an  active  effort  toward  good  will  and  mutual  understanding 
and  adjustment  of  difficulties,  for  by  the  very  nature  of  the 
ambitions   and    interests   of   the    two   nations   differences   and 
diplomatic  contests  can  hardly  be  avoided  for  many  years  to 
come. 

25 


IX.    Economic  developments  in  Japan  since  1895. 

1.  A   large   growth    in    manufacturing,    especially   during 
the  war. 

2.  With  this  rise  of  manufacturing  has  come  the  growth 
of  great  industrial  cities. 

3.  A  large  increase  in  commerce.     That  with  China  has 
particularly  expanded. 

4.  The    development    of    a    growing    merchant    marine, 
aided  by  heavy  government  subsidies. 

5.  Growth  in  banking  and  in  life  and  fire  insurance  com- 
panies. 

6.  A  rapid  increase  in  wealth,  especially  during  the  war. 
A  few  have  grown  very  rich,  but  there  seems  also  to  be  a  general 
rise  in  the  standard  of  living. 

7.  A  few  months  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  there  was 
a  sharp  industrial  and   financial  depression  in  Japan,  as  was 
to  be  expected.     This  will  not  be  of  permanent  injury  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  country. 

8.  Underlying   all    this    growing    prosperity    is    the    fact, 
however,    that    Japan's    natural    resources    are    limited.      The 
amount  of  her  arable  land  is  small,  her  coal  fields  are  not  exten- 
sive, and  she  has  but  little  iron.     Her  hope  lies  in  industrial 
and  commercial  efficiency  and  in  achieving  control  of  or  main- 
taining free  access  to  the  natural  resources  of  Eastern  Asia. 


X.     Internal  political  developments  since  1895. 

1.  Party   struggles.      The   hope   of   some   of   the   parties 
was  to  bring  about  the  responsibility  of  the  cabinet  to  the  diet. 
This  was  not  achieved  but  the  ministry  has  usually  found  it 
advisable  to  conciliate  the  lower  house  as  much  as  possible. 

2.  Agitation  for  the  extension  of  the  franchise.     It  was 
partly  successful. 

26 


3.  The  present  premier,   Kara,   is  spoken  of  as  the  first 
commoner  to  hold  the  office. 

4.  Among   the   prominent   figures   in   the   politics   of   the 
past  twenty-five  years  have  been  Ito,  Katsura,  Saionji,  Okuma, 
Terauchi,  and  Yamagata. 

5.  There  is  a  growing  liberal  sentiment,  especially  among 
the  middle  and  student  classes,  but  the  conservatives,  entrenched 
in  the  army  and  navy,  still  have  a  controlling  influence  in  the 
government. 

6.  There    are    the    beginnings    of    radicalism,    including 
socialism,  but  its  influence  is  still  very  slight.    There  have  been 
some  labor  disturbances. 

7.  The  nation   is  intensely  patriotic  and  as  a  whole  is 
devotedly  loyal  to  the  emperor.   The  present  emperor,  Yoshihito, 
succeeded  the  emperor  Meiji  in  1912. 


XI.     Intellectual  and  educational  development. 

1.  A   growth    in    schools,    and    great   pressure   upon    the 
institutions  of  higher  education  to  accommodate  the  numbers 
who  apply  for  admission. 

2.  Japanese   scholarship   is   proving   able  and   is   making 
contributions  of  importance  along  a  number  of  lines. 

3.  There  is  growth  in  the  output  of  newspapers,  periodicals, 
and  books. 

Bibliography.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  Japan,  Chapters 
X-XII;  Brinkley,  A  History  of  the  Japanese  People, 
pp.  697-731;  Clement,  Handbook  of  Modern  Japan, 
passim ;  Porter,  The  Full  Recognition  of  Japan,  passim ; 
Mitford,  Japan's  Inheritance,  passim;  Japan  and 
Japanese  -  American  Relations,  Clark  University 
Addresses,  New  York,  G.  E.  Stechert  and  Co.,  1912, 
passim. 

27 


SUGGESTED   OUTLINES   FOR  SINGLE   MEETINGS 

ON  JAPAN 

A.  JAPANESE-AMERICAN  RELATIONS.    See  pages  21-25, 

of  this  syllabus  for  an  outline  and  consult  the  biblio- 
graphy on  pages  38  and  39,  for  a  list  of  books. 

B.  THE  JAPANESE   CONSTITUTION.     See   page    13   for 

a  brief  outline.  Bibliography.  W.  W.  McLeran, 
A  Political  History  of  Japan  During  the  Meiji  Era, 
1867-1912,  New  York,  1916;  Clement,  Handbook  of 
Modern  Japan,  Chapters  IX  and  X;  McGovern, 
Modern  Japan,  Parts  II  and  III. 

C.  SINO-JAPANESE   RELATIONS. 

I.  Relations  before  the  nineteenth  century. 

1.  The  Japanese  had  derived  most  of  their  culture  from 
China. 

2.  The  Chinese  looked  upon  the  Japanese  with  patronizing 
contempt  as  "island  dwarfs"  who  had  borrowed  all  that  kept 
them  from  being  barbarous  from  the  ' 'Middle  Kingdom." 

3.  In  the  sixteenth  century  Japanese  pirates  had  raided 
the  coasts  of  China  and  Hideyoshi  had  invaded  Korea  with  the 
expectation  of  conquering  China  by  that  route. 

II.  Relations  in  the  nineteenth  century  before  1894. 

1.  In  the  seventies  there  was  friction  between  the  two 
countries  over  the  title  to  the  Riu  Kiu  Islands  and  incidentally 
over  Formosa. 

2.  There  was  also  friction  over  Korea.    Japan  opened  the 
country    to    foreign    intercourse   and   supported    the   party   of 
progress,  while  China   claimed   the   suzerainty   of   Korea   and 
backed  the  reactionary  group.    In  1884  both  powers  intervened 
in  a  collision  between  these  two  groups,    but   withdrew   their 
troops  in  1885  under  an  agreement  which  it  was  hoped  would 
cover  similar  incidents  in  the  future. 

28 


III.  The  Chino- Japanese  War.     See  above,  page  15. 

IV.  Japan's  par  tin  suppressing  the  Boxer  Uprising.     See  above, 
page  16. 

V.  The  Russo-Japanese  War.     See  above,  page  17. 

China  gave  her  consent  to  the  provisions  of  the  Peace  of 
Portsmouth  that  affected  her. 

VI.  Between  1905  and  1914  Japan  was  gradually  extending  her 
influence  over  China.     See  above,  page  18. 

VII.  During  the  Great  War  Japan  greatly  increased  her  power 
in  China,  but  in  doing  so  aroused  the  antagonism  of  most 
of  the  Chinese  people.     See  above  pages  18-21. 

VIII.  China  is  necessary  to  Japan's  future,  for  that  depends 
upon  the  successful  development  of  Japan's  industry  and 
commerce  and  China  is  at  once  Japan's  best  potential  market 
and  her  nearest  supply  of  iron  and  other  raw  materials. 

Bibliography.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  Japan-,  S.  K. 
Hornbeck,  Contemporary  Politics  in  The  Far  East, 
New  York,  1916;  B.  L.  Putnam  Weale,  The  Truth  About 
China  and  Japan,  New  York,  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  1919; 
A.  J.  Brown,  The  Mastery  of  the  Pacific,  Scribner's,  1919. 

D.    JAPANESE   RELIGIONS. 

I.     Shinto. 

1.  The  religion  of  primitive  Japan.     It  has  no  elaborate 
theology,  no  ornate  ritual  nor  highly  organized  pantheon.     It 
pays  great  honor  to  national  heroes,  to  the  spirits  of  ancestors, 
especially  of  imperial  ancestors,  and  to  the  Sun  Goddess,  the 
putative  ancestress  of  the  imperial  line.     It  has  no  ethical  code. 

2.  It  has  been  somewhat  influenced  by  Buddhism  and  by 
Chinese  mythology. 

3.  Its  shrines  have  no  images,  but  may  occasionally  con- 
tain replicas  of  the  mirror,  sword,  and  jewel  said  to  have  been 
entrusted  by  the  Sun  Goddess   to   her  grandson,   the  ancestor 
of  the  imperial  line. 

29 


4.  The  maintenance  of  its  shrines  and  ceremonies  has 
been  largely  taken  over  by  the  state,  and  many  claim  that  its 
observances  are  patriotic  rather  than  religious.  It  has  been 
used  to  reenforce  the  patriotic  spirit  of  the  new  Japan. 

II.    Buddhism. 

1.  This  faith  was  introduced  from  Korea  and  China  and 
is  of  Indian  origin. 

2.  Buddhism,  as  the  vehicle  by  which  continental  culture 
came  to  Japan,  was  very  prominent  and  under  the  Tokugawa 
shoguns  it  was  supported  in  part  by  the  state. 

3.  The  dominant  type  of  Buddhism  is  Mahayana  ("Greater 
Vehicle")   or   northern   Buddhism,   but   this  has  been  divided 
into  a  number  of  sects. 

4.  Buddhism  is  still  very  active  in  Japan  and  is  directed  by 
well  educated  and  able  leaders.     It  is  making  a  serious  effort 
to  keep  abreast  of  the  times  and  is  a  vital  factor  in  the  life  of 
the  nation. 


III.  Confucianism.     This  has  never  been  as  prominent  as  it 

has  been  in  China  and  from  the  nature  of  the  case  has 
no  hierarchy.  Its  influence  has  been  largely  that  of  a 
philosophy  and  a  system  of  ethics,  and  has  been  largely 
exerted  upon  the  upper  classes. 

IV.  Christianity. 

1.  This  was  first  introduced  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  sixteenth 
century  and  was  eventually  stamped  out  by  severe  persecutions. 

2.  It    was    reintroduced    by    Protestant,    Catholic,    and 
Russian  missionaries  in  the  nineteenth  century  and  has  made  a 
good  deal  of  progress.     While  numerically  very  much  in  the 
minority,  its  adherents  have  increased  much  more  rapidly  than 
the  population  and  have  had  an  influence  on  the  life  of  the  nation 
far  out  of  proportion  to  their  numerical  strength. 

30 


Bibliography.  Latourette,  The  Development  of  Japan-,  Griffis, 
The  Mikado's  Empire ;  W.  G.  Aston,  Shinto,  The  Way 
of  the  Gods,  London,  1905 ;  G.  W.  Knox,  The  Development 
of  Religion  in  Japan,  New  York,  1907;  A.  Lloyd,  The 
Creed  of  Half  Japan,  New  York,  1912;  O.  Carey, 
A  History  of  Christianity  in  Japan,  New  York,  1909. 


E.     JAPANESE  INDUSTRY. 

I.  The  situation  in  1853.  The  country  was  virtually  self- 
supporting.  Its  main  industries  were  agriculture, 
fishing,  and  various  kinds  of  handicrafts.  Such  manu- 
factures as  existed  were  organized  on  the  guild  system 
and  were  in  the  handicraft  stage. 


II.     Industry  in  the  age  of  transition,  1853-1894. 

1.  Government  leadership   in   the   transformation,   rather 
than  private  initiative.     This  was  because: 

a.  Under  the  old  regime  the  people  were  accustomed 
to  official  leadership; 

b.  Only   the   government   had   the   requisite   capital; 

c.  The   urgency  was  too  great   to  wait  for  private 
enterprise  to  take  the  lead. 

2.  Forms  that  government  leadership  took: 

a.  Agents    were    sent    abroad    to    study    occidental 
methods  of  agriculture  and  manufacture  and  to  draw  up  plans 
for  Japan.     Foreign  experts  were  employed. 

b.  Experimental    stations    and    laboratories,    model 
factories,  foundries,  and  farms  were  started  and  were  gradually 
turned  over  to  private  enterprise. 

c.  An    elaborate    and    efficient    system    of    technical 
and  industrial  education  was  inaugurated. 

d.  An   efficient   banking   and    currency   system   was 

established. 

31 


(1)  The  silver  standard  first  prevailed,  but  the 
gold  standard  was  adopted  in  1897. 

(2)  The  first  banking  system  was  formed  on  the 
American  model   (1872)  but  private  banks  later  arose  and  in 
1882  there  was  established  the  Bank  of  Japan  on  the  type  of 
the   central   banks   of   France,    Germany,   and    England.     The 
Bank  of  Japan  has  the  exclusive  right  to  issue  paper. 

(3)  The   Yokohama   Specie   Bank   was   founded 
to  help  in  foreign  trade. 

(4)  Other   important   banks   are  The   Hypothec 
Bank   (Bank   of  Agriculture),   The   Industrial   Bank,   and   the 
colonial  banks  of  Formosa,  Korea,  Hokkaido,  etc. 


III.     Changes  since  1894  and  conditions  at  the  present  time. 

1.     The  chief  industries  are: 

a.  Agriculture.    This  is  still  the  chief  industry.     It  is 
very  intensive  and  the  plots  are  small,  for  only  one-sixth  of 
the  area  of  the  country  is  under  cultivation  and  the  majority 
of  holdings  are  under  2%  acres.    Most  of  the  farmers  are  tenants. 
The  chief  crop  is  rice.    Aid  to  farmers  is  given  by  the  Hypothec 
Bank  and  by  government  experiment  stations. 

b.  Forestry.     This   is   very   important,    for   one-half 
of  the  taxable  land  is  forested.    There  is  scientific  forestry. 

c.  Fisheries  are  very  important  and    have   been  so 
for  years. 

d.  Stock-breeding.     This  has  been  greatly  improved 
in  recent  years. 

e.  Sericulture.     Silk  is  one  of  the  greatest  articles  of 
export. 

f.  Mining.      The    chief    minerals    are    coal,    copper, 
sulphur,  with  some  gold,  silver,  petroleum,  zinc,  tin,  antimony, 
and  iron. 

g.  Manufactures. 

32 


2.  A  great  growth  in  manufactures  has  taken  place  in 
the  past  twenty-five  years. 

a.  This    is    because    population     is     increasing    and 
cannot     migrate,  arable  land  is  limited,  and  Japan's  hope  of 
continued    prosperity    rests    accordingly    upon    her    success    in 
becoming  a  manufacturing  and  commercial  nation  and  exchang- 
ing the  products  of  her  factories  for  food. 

b.  Obstacles  in  the  way. 

(1)  Lack  of  skilled  labor  and  of  experience  with 
modern  industrial  appliances. 

(2)  Limited    natural    resources.      There    is   very 
little  iron  and  there  is  not  as  much  coal  as  in  many  nations. 
There  is  little  land  on  which  to  raise  raw  materials  for  factories. 

(3)  There  was  originally  a  lack  of  capital. 

c.  Assets. 

(1)  An  abundant  supply  of  cheap  labor. 

(2)  A  strong  government  to  take  the  lead. 

(3)  Aptitude  in  adopting  and  adapting  foreign 
methods. 

(4)  Great  natural  resources  on  the  continent  in 
Korea,  Manchuria,  and  China  Proper. 

(5)  A  large  potential  market  in  China. 

(6)  The  possibility  of  developing  extensive  hydro- 
electric power. 

d.  Great  growth,  especially  during  the  Great  War. 
The  number  of  industrial  companies  nearly  doubled  between 
1908  and  the  end  of  the  war. 

e.  The  greatest  industries  are  textile,  machine  and 
tool,  ship-building,  chemical,  and  food  and  drink. 

f.  There  has  been  a  marked  depression  since  the  war, 
but  this  is  probably  to  be  only  temporary. 

3.  A  great  increase  in  wealth  during  the  war. 

Bibliography.  W.  M.  McGovern,  Modern  Japan,  Part  V; 
Porter,  The  Full  Recognition  of  Japan,  Chapters  XIII- 
XVIII;  Pooley,  Japan  at  the  Cross-Roads,  Chapters, 
IV,  V. 

33 


F.    JAPANESE  TRANSPORTATION  AND   COMMERCE. 

I.     The  rapid  growth  of  railways,  mercantile  marine,  and  com- 
merce in  the  past  thirty  years. 

1.  The  necessity  for  this  lies  in  Japan's  increasing  popu- 
lation, her  limited  area,   the  lack  of  land  to  which  Japanese 
can  easily   migrate,   and   the   consequent   necessity  of   seeking 
expansion  in  commerce. 

2.  The  total  increase  of  foreign  trade  from    1896  to  1910 
was  over  300  per  cent.     In  shipping  the  growth  was  even  more 
marked. 

3.  Aids  in  rapid  growth. 

a.  Necessity. 

b.  Government  aid  through  commercial  schools,   an 
efficient  consular  system,  subsidies  to  steamship  lines  and  The 
Yokohama  Specie  Bank. 

c.  The  enterprise  of  the  people. 


II.     Commerce. 

1.  Great  firms  such  as  the    Mitsui    Company    and   Mit- 
subishi Company  have  aided  it. 

2.  For  many  years  the  United  States  was  Japan's  best 
customer,    buying   chiefly   silk.      China   has   since   become   the 
best  customer,  purchasing  chiefly  piece  goods.    With  the  rise  of 
cotton  mills  in  China,  other  forms  of  Japanese  imports  must 
become  important  there.    There  has  been  a  growth  of  Japanese 
imports,  especially  during  the  war,  to  India  and  other  sections 
of  South  East  Asia. 

3.  In    1919,    there    began    a    boycott    in    China    against 
Japanese  goods.    This  was  caused  by  the  dislike  of  the  Chinese 
for  the  Japanese  policy  in  China  in  recent  years,  and  was  precipi- 
tated by  the  Shantung  decision  at  Paris,  and  the  arrest  of  some 
student  agitators  by  pro-Japanese  Chinese  officials  in  Peking. 
The  boycott  was  engineered  by  students  and  for  a  time  greatly 
injured  Japanese  trade,  but  it  gradually  became  less  acute. 

34 


III.  Railways.      These    were    originally    built    partly    by    the 

government  and  partly  by  private  initiative.  They 
were  nationalized  in  1907.  They  constitute  a  very 
good  system,  both  on  the  main  islands  and  in  Korea 
and  South  Manchuria. 

IV.  Shipping. 

1.  This  has  been  aided  by  heavy  government  subsidies, 
and   for  this  and  other  reasons  has  grown  rapidly,  especially 
during  the  Great  War. 

2.  The  chief  steamship  companies  are  the  Nippon  Yusen 
Kaisha    (Japan   Mail   Steamship   Company),    the   Toyo   Kisen 
Kaisha  (Oriental  Steamship  Company),  and  the  Osaka  Shosen 
Kaisha  (Osaka  Mercantile  Steamship  Co.). 

Bibliography.  Clement,  Handbook  of  Modern  Japan,  Chapter 
III;  McGovern,  Modern  Japan,  Part  V;  Porter,  The 
Full  Recognition  of  Japan,  Chapter  XIX;  Pooley, 
Japan  at  the  Cross  Roads,  Chapters  IV  and  V. 

G.     SHRINES  AND  ANCIENT  CITIES  OF  JAPAN. 

I.  Nagasaki,  the  old  port  of  entry  to  Japan. 

II.  Izumo,  an  old  Shinto  shrine. 

III.  Kyoto,  the  old  capital,  with  its  ancient  temples. 

IV.  Ise,  the  seat  of  early  imperial  shrines. 

V.  Nara,  an  early  imperial  capitol. 

VI.  Miyajima,  in  the  Inland  Sea. 

VI I .  Kamakura,  the  capital  of  the  earlier  shoguns. 

VIII.  Tokyo.     Here    and    there    are    to    be    found,    scattered 

through  the  modern  city,  relics  of  the  Yedo  of  the 
Tokugawa  shoguns,  such  as  the  castle,  now  used  for  the 
imperial  palace,  and  the  Shiba  temples. 

IX.  Nikko,  with  its  shrines. 

X.  Hikone,  with  its  old  feudal  castle. 

35 


Bibliography.  L.  Hearn,  Glimpses  of  Unfamiliar  Japan;  H.  W. 
Mabie,  Japan  To-day  and  To-morrow,  New  York,  Mao 
millan,  1914;  Mitford,  Japan's  Inheritance;  Lawson, 
Highways  and  Houses  of  Japan,  New  York,  F.  A. 
Stokes  Co.,  1910;  E.  R.  Scidmore,  Jinricksha  Days 
in  Japan,  New  York,  Harpers,  1899;  H.  G.  Ponting, 
In  Lotus-Land  Japan,  London,  Macmillan,  1910;  W. 
Tyndale,  Japan  and  the  Japanese,  London,  Methuen, 
1910. 


H.     THE  ART  OF  JAPAN. 

I.  Most  of  it  is  of  Chinese  origin. 

II.  Beauty  is  part  of  the  soul  of  Japan. 

III.  Painting. 

1.  The  ideal  of  the  older  painting  was  to  catch  the  soul 
of  a  landscape  as  much  as  the  form. 

2.  The  newer  schools  are  influenced  by  European  models 
and  ideals. 

IV.  Architecture.     The  best  examples  of  the  older  architecture 

are  seen  in  Buddhist  temples  and  feudal  castles. 

V.  Ceramics.     The  older  wares  were    developed  by  different 

schools  in  the  various  feudal  states.     To-day  the  art  is 
badly  commercialized. 

VI.  Lacquer. 

VII.  Textile  fabrics . 

VIII.  Dancing,  especially  the  classic  No. 

IX.  Gardening. 

X.  Tea  ceremonial. 

XI.  Flower  arrangement. 

Bibliography.  Clement,  Handbook  of  Modern  Japan,  Chapter 
XVI;  Binyon.  Painting  in  the  Far  East;  Fenellosa, 
Epochs  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  Art;  Morrison,  The 
Painters  of  Japan;  Brinkley,  Japan,  Its  History, 
Arts,  and  Literature;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  under 
article  on  Japan. 

36 


A  SELECTED   BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  BOOKS  ON  JAPAN 

I.     Description,  Travel  and  Statistics. 

Chamberlain,  B.  H.,  Things  Japanese,  London,  1902. 
Clarke,  J.  I.  C,  Japan  at  First  Hand,  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

Clement,  E.  W.,  A  Handbook  of  Modern  Japan,  6th  edition, 
Chicago,  A.  C.  McClurg,  1905. 

Griffis,    W.    E.,    The   Mikado's  Empire,    New   York,    1913 
(12th  ed.). 

Hearn,  Lafcadio,  Glimpses  of    Unfamiliar  Japan,   2  vols., 
Boston,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.,  1895. 

McGovern,  W.  M.,  Modern  Japan,  Its  Political,  Military, 
and  Industrial  Organization,  New  York,  Scribner's,  1920. 

Mitford,  E.  B.,  Japan's  Inheritance;  The  Country,  Its  People, 
and  Their  Destiny,  London,  T.  Fisher,  Unwin,  1913. 

Nitobe,  I.,  The  Japanese  Nation,  Its  Land,  Its  People,  and 
Its  Life,  New  York,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1912. 

Pooley,  A.  M.,  Japan  at  the  Cross  Roads,  London,  George 
Allen  and  Unwin,  1917. 

Porter,  R.  P.,  The  Full  Recognition  of  Japan,  Oxford  Uni- 
versity Press,  1911. 

Sunderland,  J.  T.,  Rising  Japan,  New  York,  G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons,  1918. 

II.     Art  and  Architecture. 

Binyon,  L.,  Painting  in  the  Far  East.     London,  1908. 

Fenollosa,  E.  F.,  Epochs  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  Art,  London, 

1912. 
Morrison,  A.,  The  Painters  of  Japan,  London  and  Edinburgh, 

1911. 

37 


III.    Education  and  Literature . 

Aston,  W.  G.,  A  History  of  Japanese  Literature,  New  York, 
1899. 

Kikuchi,  Baron  Dairoku,  Japanese  Education,  London,  1909. 
Mitford,  A.  B.,  Tales  of  Old  Japan,  London,  1871. 

Reinsch,  P.  S.,  Intellectual  and  Political  Currents  in  the  Far 
East,  Boston,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1911. 


IV.     Religion,  Ethics,  and  Social  Life. 

Aston,  W.  G.,  Shinto,  The  Way  of  the  Gods,  London,  1905. 

Carey,  Otis,  A  History  of  Christianity  in  Japan,  New  York, 
F.  H.  Revell,  1909. 

Gulick,  S.  L.,  Evolution  of  the  Japanese,  5th  ed.,  New  York, 
1905. 

Hearn,  Lafcadio,  Japan,  An  Attempt  at  Interpretation,  New 
York,  1904. 

Knox,  G.  W.,  The  Development  of  Religion  in  Japan,  New 
York,  1907. 

Lloyd,  A.,  The  Creed  of  Half  Japan,  New  York,  1912. 

Nitobe,  I.,  Bushido,  The  Soul  of  Japan,  10th  ed.,  New  York, 
1905. 


V.     Japanese- American  Relations. 

Abbott,  J.  F.,  Japanese  Expansion  and  American  Policies, 
New  York,  1916. 

Gleason,  G.,  What  Shall  I  Think  of  Japan,  Macmillan,  1921. 

Gulick,  S.  L.,  The  American  Japanese  Problem,  New  York, 
1914. 

lyenaga  T.  and  Sato  K.,  Japan  and  the  California  Problem, 
New  York,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1921. 

Japan  and  Japanese- American  Relations.     Clark  University 
Addresses,  New  York,  1912. 

Kawakami,  K.  K.,  Asia  at  the  Door,  New  York,  1914. 

38 


Millis,  H.  A.,  The  Japanese  Problem  in  the    United  States, 
New  York,  1915. 

Millard,  T.  F.  F.,  Democracy  and  the  Eastern  Question,  New 
York,  The  Century  Co.,  1919. 

Pitkin,  W.,  Must  We  Fight  Japan?     New  York,  1921. 

VI.     History. 

Asakawa,  K.,  The  Russo-Japanese  Conflict,  Boston,  1904. 

Brinkley  F.,  Japan,  Its  History,  Arts,  and  Literature,  8  vols., 
Boston  and  Tokyo,  1901-1902. 

Brinkley,  F.,  A   History  of  the  Japanese  People,  New  York, 
1915. 

Brown,  A.   J.,   The  Mastery  of  the  Far  East,   New  York, 
Scribner's,  1919. 

Dillon,   E.   J.,    The  Collapse  of  Russia,  New  York,  G.  H. 
Doran  Co.,  1918. 

Griffis,  W.  E.,  The  Japanese  Nation  in  Evolution,  New  York, 
T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co.,  1907. 

Hara,  K.,  An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Japan,  New  York, 
Putnam's,  1921. 

Hayashi,  Count  Tadasu,  The  Secret  Memoirs  of,  London, 
1915. 

Hershey,  A.  R.,  Modern  Japan,  Bobbs,  Merrill  Co. 

Hornbeck,   S.   K.,   Contemporary   Politics  in  the  Far  East, 
New  York,  Appleton,  1916. 

Latourette,  K.  S.,  The  Development  of  Japan,  New  York, 
Macmillan,  1917. 

Longford,  J.  K.,  The  Story  of  Old  Japan,  London,  1910. 
Longford,  J.  K.,  The  Story  of  Korea,  New  York,  1911. 

McLaren,  W.  W.,  A  Political  History  of  Japan  During  the 
MeijiEra,  1867-1912,  New  York,  1916. 

Murdoch,  James,   History  of  Japan,  During  the  Century  of 
Early  Foreign  Intercourse,  1542-1641,  Kobe,  1903. 

Okuma,   Count  Shigenobu,  Fifty    Years  of   New  Japan,   2 
vols.,  1909. 

39 


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